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Faulona
Faulona was created to familiarize myself with Latin and Italian, and yes, it is another Romance conlang, but it contains genders and a bit more of a grammar than my previous conlangs. It's vocabulary is largely from Vulgar Latin, with a bit from Classical Latin, and it underwent many of the same sound changes as Italian, except for the "l>i" shift seen in words like "piacere". from Latin "placere". Setting I don't really have a conworld, as I'm not as much into that, but if I were to designate a place to this language, it would definitely be somewhere along the northern coast of the Mediterranean, due to its similarity to Latin and Italian. Phonology Consonants These mostly are written as they appear in the language. However, not that the alveolo-palatal fricative and affricates, are pronounced as such every time an "i" follows a /t/, /d/, or /s/. The palatal nasal is represent by the digraph "gn" and the voiceless velar plosive is represented by "c". Vowels Alphabet: A B C D E F G I K L M N O P R S T U V (Z) A Be Ce De E Ef Ge I Ka El Em En O Pe Er Es Te U Ve (Ze) Phonotactics In the alphabet, the "z" is shown in brackets because there is not actually a letter for it.“Z” is written with one “s” in the middle of a word (whereas “s” is written with two), and it simply isn't put at the beginning of a word. It also doesn't come up in consonant clusters unless the other consonant is a voiced plosive. Casa=house=/ˈka.zʌ/ Cassa=he breaks/ˈka.sʌ/ Basically, "z" is an allophone of "s" intervocalically. Most words cannot end in any kind of consonant, but words that end in nasals or "r" are allowed, and the nasals assimilate to the next letter's point of articulation. "Un" and "On" are never written with "m" at the end, but still assimilate. Other words ending in nasals are usually prepositions, and end with a voiced bilabial nasal (written "m") before a vowel (as long as the next consonant is not also a voiced bilabial nasal), as well as before bilabial letters. Before alveolar consonants, a voiced alveolar nasal (written "n") is used, and before velar consonants, a voiced velar nasal (written "n") is used. Before labiodental fricatives, a voiced labiodental nasal (written "n") is used. Cum=with Sem=like, as (semblative/essive, cognate with "same") Cun on basio=with a kiss ("n" is actually a voiced bilabial nasal) Cum on sodalo=with a comrade Cum pane=with bread The usage of "r" varies, and is not dependent on spelling. Spelling changes according to the number of syllables, where the letters are in the word, what suffixes and prefixes are added, (such as the transitional and causative verb prefix "a-", which doubles following unvoiced consonants, "r", and nasals) and which letter is in question (generally voiced consonants, except for nasals, don't double). Some words differentiate only by their spellings. I still need to kind of work it out more fully. "R" is generally tapped when alone, trilled when beside other letters, and approximated when another "r" is placed in the same syllable, and is part of the root (since conjugations can dissimilate "r" into "l"). "Gn" is a generally palatalized voiced alveolar nasal, especially at the beginning of a word, but can be pronounced as its separate components as per the whim of the speaker when it is in the middle of the word (despite this sometimes violating phonotactics). A voiced plosive followed by a voiced fricative is only allowed when they are an affricate, and no nasal or approximant can come before a plosive or fricative at the beginning of a syllable. In a word where "l" is in a consonant cluster, like in "pulvre", meaning "dust", the "l" can be softened to a vowel—the same kind of sound as the "o" in Serbian "Beograd", which sounds like an "l" but is kind of softer to say. A "dark l" can also be used. This also happens when the "l" is alone intervocalically, but not at the start of a sentence. Normally stress is penultimate, but when the last two syllables are both vowels (e.g. "venio", I come), stress can either be placed on the penultimate syllable, or the one before that. There is a "low" dialect, which fricativizes many phones. This includes turning "g" and "c" into a voiced velar fricative and an unvoiced one, respectively, as well as palatalizing "si" and "ti" more sharply than normal, so that the "i" is no longer pronounced (unless it is by itself). "V" also becomes even less like a voiced fricative and more like an approximant. "Ni" also palatalizes, as well as "li". Basic Grammar Largely SVO, or SOV in which the object is a pronoun, including the reflexive "se" pronoun. Adjectives come before the nouns they modify, and adverbs come after verbs, but before adjectives. Articles come before the nouns they modify, and prepositions are used. Sentence structure can be reverted to VSO for the sake of avoiding two "a"s in hiatus, as they do not have comfortable alternate pronunciations to be in a row, whereas "e e" can revert to "e ɛ", "i i" can revert to "i ɪ", "o o" can have a "w" semivowel placed intervocalically, and "u u" can revert to "u ʌ". "Dat-il a la filia un flora" means "He gives a flower to the girl", with VSO word order, and the indirect object coming after the direct. The word "da", meaning "he/she/it gives", has an archaic "t" added on (somewhat influenced by French liaison and also by older Latin spellings) to have the sequence "da il" made more comfortable to say. Sometimes, even these modifications aren't enough, so word order changes slightly again, and "a" turns into "ad", exactly like the Latin word of the same meaning, rendering "Il dica a Anna" ("he speaks to Anna") from an awkward triple-a hiatus, into "Ad Anna dicat-il". Auxiliary verbs come before main verbs, and conditional mood and subjunctive mood are conjugated, whereas negative mood is shown with a separate word, "no", placed before the verb. The subjunctive is also used as an optative, and occasionally as a conditional, as it is really just a general irrealis mood. The desiderative mood is shown with the modal verb "vellere", placed before the main. Interrogative is expressed with present indicative, and there is not really a third-person interrogative, however the third-person singular subjunctive conjugation can be used for this. Directive moods are generally shown with modal verbs, as are most epistemic moods (except the subjunctive). The indicative can also show the progressive, jussive, and gnomic, besides its usual use as an aorist aspect. Masculine nouns usually end in "-o", changing to "-i" in the plural, whereas feminine nouns end in "-a", changing to "-e" in the plural. Several nouns end in "-e" in the singular and plural, with genders that vary and must be memorized for each noun. Also, there are a handful of neuter nouns; see the "Other" section at the bottom for those. "Mano" is a feminine word, and "atta" is another feminine word, that means "father". I thought of something while wondering why "qui/chi" doesn't decline in Romanic languages. It does in Latin, so why not in its descendants? So, I made some words, "cui/cue" (once "cua" too) nominatively and "cuom/cuem" (once "cuim" too) accusatively, to show the pronoun "who" and "whom", respectively. The plural/singular distinction isn't expressed in this pronoun, but number would still carry on after. As a subordinating conjunction, however, "ce" is still used. "Cuam" can be used as a formal "than", replacing "ce", but "cuanto" could also be used for this, and would decline. Illo opea ce sia grandioro=he wishes he were larger There are no ergative verbs in Faulona. "Lu pane cocca" means that the bread is actually cooking, not being cooked "Essere" is the basic copula, but "stare" is used to show existence ("there is"="sta", "there are"="stano") and height ("...le monte stavano ultre ardue..."). Verbs have three tenses, two moods, and multiple aspects. Imperfect and basic past is formed as shown in the verb conjugations below, but a compound verb is used for perfect voice, the auxiliary verb being "avere", followed by the past participle. Like Italian and French, if the direct object is a pronoun and comes before the auxiliary verb (including "cuem" (masc.) and "cuam" (fem.)), then its gender and number are reflected in the PPP's ending (PPP=past passive participle). To make the mediopassive voice, with no marked volition, turn the verb into its PPP form before conjugating it normally (retaining the verb type). This is why "metire" means "measure, estimate; mete out, ration", and its PPP infinitive verb form, "mensire", means "equal (in number/measure)". "Mensire" technically means "to be measured/estimated/meted out". Causitive and mediopassive verbs Intransitive verbs are made causative by marking the passive voice, transitive verbs require the passive of auxiliary verb “facere”. Clamatto=I am caused to cry Curettevemo=We were forced to run Illo me clamatta=He is caused to cry (by me) Io lu facco clamare=I make him cry Fatto edere=I am caused to eat Facco edere=I cause to eat Fatta me facere clamare/fatta me clamattare He is caused to cause me to cry Fattevo lu videre=I was forced to see him Unaccusitive verbs Mora=he is dying, he dies Morta=he is dead, he died Me morta=he is dead (by/because of me) Ceda=it happens Cesa=it has happened Cuando veniri?=when will you be coming? Cuando venitiri?=when will you have arrived? Conjugations '-ERE: MOVERE' Present Io muev'o' Tu muev'e' Il muev'a' Noi mov'amo' Voi mov'ete' Ili mov'enta', mov'eno', mov'unt' Future Io movero Tu moveri Il movera Noi moveremo Voi moverete Ili moverenta, movereno, moverunt Past Io movebbo Tu movebbe Il movebba Noi movebamo Voi movebete Ili movebenta, movebeno, movebunt Subjunctive Io moviero, moveo Tu moviere, movi Il moviera, movia Noi moveamo Voi moveate Ili movienta, moveano, moviunt Impersonal participle: Movetto Root/base: Mov-, muev- "Io" basis for non-progressive/gnomic conjugations: Perfect: Avo movetto Pluperfect: Avebo movetto Perfect subjunctive: Auro movetto Pluperfect subjunctive Aurevo movetto '-IRE: FINIRE' Present Io fin'o', fin'io' Tu fin'e' Il fin'a' Noi fin'isso' Voi fin'ite' Ili fin'enta', fin'ino', fin'int' Future Io finiro Tu finiri Il finira Noi finirisso Voi finirite Ili finirenta, finirino, finirint Past Io finivo Tu finive Il finiva Noi finivisso Voi finivite Ili finiventa, finivino, finivint Subjunctive Io finisco, fineo Tu finisce, fini Il finisca, finia Noi finissamo, finiamo Voi finissate, finiate Ili finissenta, finissino, finiano, finissint Impersonal participle: Finito Root/base: Fin- "Io" basis for non-progressive/gnomic conjugations: Perfect: Avo finito Pluperfect: Avebo finito Perfect subjunctive: Auro finito Pluperfect subjunctive Aurevo finito   '-ARE: CANTARE' (related to "canare", meaning "to recite" or "to chant") Present Io cant'o' Tu cant'e' Il cant'a' Noi cant'amo' Voi cant'ate' Ili cant'ana', cant'ano', cant'unt' Future Io cantaro Tu cantari Il cantara Noi cantaramo Voi cantarate Ili cantarana, cantarano, cantarunt Past Io cantavo Tu cantave Il cantava Noi cantavamo Voi cantavate Ili cantavana, cantavano, cantavunt Subjunctive Io cantiaro/canteo Tu cantiare/canti Il cantiara/cantea Noi cantiamo, cantemo Voi cantiate, cantete Ili cantiana, cantiano, canteno, cantiunt Impersonal participle: Cantatto Root/base: Cant- "Io" basis for non-progressive/gnomic conjugations: Perfect: Avo cantatto Pluperfect: Avebo cantatto Perfect subjunctive: Auro cantatto Pluperfect subjunctive Aurevo cantatto Notes For verbs whose roots end in “v”, the past “-ev" infix turns into “-ebb” for the singular conjugations and “-eb” for the plural. For verbs whose roots end in “r” in which the conjugations contain another “r” as the next consonant (so things like “rier-” or “rer-” aren’t viable), the second “r” changes to “l” through dissimilation. This "l" follows the rules of the "b" in the first rule listed above. For third person plural conjugations, the first is an old system I used (I keep it written mostly for sentimental value, I guess), the second is revised, and the third is what it changes to during Subject-Verb switching, so "Ili cantarano?" becomes "Cantarunt-ili?" with the syllable break actually between the second "n" and "t" in "Cantarunt", much like the added "t" changing "Il canta?" into "Cantat-il?". The reason it's written down for the plural third person and not the singular is because the plural is more irregular. Also, in both sound shifts, the final "t" is actually pronounced at the beginning of the "Il" syllable, not at the end of the "nt", because the phonotactics allow nasals to end syllables, but not plosives. To make the past subjunctive one word, infix the imperfect ending before the subjunctive. Grammar Participles Past passive participles were detailed above. Past active participles can be done by passively conjugating the verb before adding the present participle ending; so "having spoken" could be written as "diceventa". "Aventa dicetto" also works. For "-ere" and "ire" verbs, the present participles is "-enta", and for "-are" verbs, it is "-anta". There are not really present passive participles, however a present participle followed by a past conjugated verb can work. Also, "stanta (past passive participle)" could be used. Future active participles can be formed by adding the future conjugation before adding the active ending, so "(about/yet) to speak" would be "dicerenta". Future passive participles also aren't easy to form, but "Staranta dicetto" works. Past Passive: Dicetto, aventa stare dicetto, stavanta dicetto Past Active: Diceventa, aventa dicetto Present Passive: Stanta dicetto Present Active: Dicenta Future Passive: Staranta dicetto, diceretto Future Active: Dicerenta Gerund For "-ere" and "ire" verbs, the gerund is "-endo", and for "-are" verbs, it is "-ando". The infinitive is preferred when possible Supine "Por" is used to form the supine. "Il me faula por me faccere nettere" means "He talks to me to make me understand". Subjunctive Subjunctive is widely used in Faulona, and is used after "si" (if), "ante ce" (before, in a subordinate clause), "secuenta ce" (after, in a subordinate clause), and "a la ora ce" (if/when). It is also used in hypothetical or could-have-happened situations, so "I hope he comes" is "Spero ce venia", and "I wish he had come" is "Vellerio c'il aura venito", with "wish" being glossed as "would like" (showing that you still wish this, not that it was a previous wish). Another usage is in forming "lazy conditional", so instead of "Avro gaudetto s'il aura venito", to mean "I would have rejoiced if he'd have come", "Auro gaudetto..." would be used, just to mean "I rejoiced (hypothetically) if he'd have come". Comparative and Superlative Here are the irregular words from root to conditional to superlative: Bona>Meliora>Oppima (good, better, best) Mala>Peiora>Pessima (bad, worse, worst) Magna/Granda>Maiora>Massima (big/great, bigger/better, biggest/best) Parva>Minora>Minima (small, smaller, smallest) Multa>Plura>Plurima (many, more, most) Alta>Superiora>Suprema (high, higher, highest) Bassa>Inferiora>Infima (low, lower, lowest) Otherwise, the suffix for comparative is "-iora", and for superlative, "-issima". Until adverbs are fully worked out, the comparative and superlative forms of adverbs are uncertain, although "-iore"/"-issime" is the best current setup. Essere and Stare "Essere" is kind of like a gnomic form of "stare", they both are copulas, but "stare" is also existential, and it means "to stand", but it is also more often used for unaccusative auxiliary verb forms, and the passive voice for other verbs. "Essere" relates to the basic condition of something, such as its body parts, its abstract qualities, its generally stable physical qualities, and its location if it is a building, a plant, or some other generally static object. "Stare" is comparative to "am being" as opposed to just "am" in English, showing a current or temporary state, feeling, quality, or location. Dictionary I do have a ~150 page grammar guide and dictionary for this language written on my computer, I'm just in the middle of putting it online. Punctuation In Faulona, quotation marks only contain punctuation if they actually quote something. If there is a pause, it is marked with a comma, but if someone is continuously speaking but there is non-quoted text in between, the comma will go after the quotation mark to show the reader to pause, while still letting them know that the quoted person didn't pause. I will use examples to clarify. "Cuei ve?" ella diceva. NOT "Cuei ve," ella diceva? "Dun c'illo me faulava", dicevat-ella, "illo diceva ce tu lu placa." NOT "Dun c'illo me faulava," dicevat-ella, "illo diceva ce tu lu placa." Unless she actually paused while saying that. Also, sentences start with one space, not two. Sentences must be capitalized, but the word "io" doesn't have to be. Slashes are used in various ways, and parentheses are always written "()", even if there are parentheses within parentheses. The semicolon is not used. "@" can be used, and arguably makes even more sense in Faulona, since the word for "at" is "a". Apostrophes mark omitted text, and quotations within quotations are simply expressed with more quotation marks. To adapt, either a keyboard with two different quotation marks would have to exist, or dumb quotes would be used. Text breaks into paragraphs to separate ideas and to make the text more legible. Etiquette "Si te placa" means "please", and is cognate with "s'il te plait". It is used as in English or French, as a polite way to mark a request or demand. It is usually used simply with an imperative phrase. It does not have to be used when ordering something at a restaurant, instead, you can say "si lica", which roughly means "if that's OK". Another option, which is rarer, is "Velle (cuiva facere)", which kind of means "May you want (to do something)". "Te laudo" is used to express thanks after someone does something for you. Usually, it is an active thing, saying that you're praising them and are of a status to be able to praise or accept something. Otherwise, you can say "Avo gratia", which means "I have thankfulness", or "Sto placetto", which means "I am pleased". "Ste/esse grata/grato // este grate" means "you're welcome". "Me parce" means "Forgive me" or "I'm sorry", and can be rendered more desperate or strong with "si te placa". "Te lasso" means "I let you" or "I forgive you", and is used as a response to "me parce". A harsh way to let someone know that you acknowledge their apology but you don't want to forgive them is "te fugo", which roughly means "I dismiss you" or "I exile you". This would never be spoken by family members, and would be warrant for a divorce if one spouse apologizes and the other says "te fugo". It's similar to "fuck off" or "go away". "Se fuge" can also be used, and means "dismiss yourself" or "show yourself out", but this can also be used as a slightly less harsh way (esp. with "si te placa" or "velle") to tell someone to leave your house. The plural "you" is never used as a respectful singular, it is simply a plural. Letters can be signed with "cum basi" at the end, which means "with kisses". This is usually used when the letter is addressed to parents and grandparents. Numbers The first listed number is used as the actual name of the number, the second number is cardinal (five fish=cuinci pisci), and the third number is ordinal (the fifth fish=lu pisco cuinto). 1=Uno, una, prima 2=Duo, due, secunda 3=Tre, trie, tertia 4=Cuattro, cuattre, cuarta 5=Cuince, cuince, cuinta 6=Sesso, sesse, sesta 7=Seppe, seppa, seppima 8=Otto, otte, ottava 9=Nove, nove, nona 10=Dece, decimal 11=Undece, undecima 12=Duodece 13=Tredece 14=Cuattordece 15=Cuindece 16=Sedece 17=Seppendece, tredeviginte 18=Duadeviginte 19=Undeviginte 20=Viginta, viginte, vicensima 21=Uno e viginta 30=Triginta, triginte, tricensima 40=Quattranta, cuadraginte, cuadragensima 50=Cincanta, cuincaginte, cuincagensima 60=Seccanta, sessaginte, sessagensima 70=Settuanta, seppuaginta, seppuagensima 80=Ottanta, ottoginta, ottocensima 90=Nonnanta, nonaginta, nonagensima 100=Cento, cente, centemsima 321=Tri-centi, viginta e uno 1000=Milla Irregular Verbs The irregular verbs are "essere", "avere", "allare", "potere", "vullere", "ire", and, to a lesser part, "faccere". MANY verbs have past participles that seem irregular, but most "irregular" past participles are formed in the same way, depending on their last letter. ESSERE Present Io so Tu esse Illo esta, est Noi somo Voi este Illi suenta, sunt Imperfect Io foi Tu fueste Illo fu Noi fuimo Voi fuste Illi fuereno Future Io ero Tu ere Illo era Noi eramo Voi erate Illi erano, erant Subjunctive Io sio Tu sie/sieste Illo sia Noi siamo Voi siate Illi sino, sint Past subjunctive Io fosso Tu fosse Illo fossa Noi fossemo Voi fossete Illi fosseno AVERE Present Io avo Tu ave Illo ava Noi avemo Voi avete Illi aveno, avent Imperfect Io avebbo Tu avebbe Illo avebba Noi avebemo Voi avebete Illi avebeno Future Io avero Tu averi Illo avera Noi averemo Voi averete Illi avereno, averent Subjunctive Io auro Tu aure Illo sia Noi auremo Voi aurete Illi aureno, aurent IRE Present Io io Tu ie Illo ia Noi imo Voi ite Illi ieono, ieont Imperfect Io ivio Tu ive Illo iva Noi ivimo Voi ivite Illi ivino, ivint Future Io irio Tu iri Illo ira Noi irimo Voi irite Illi irino, irint Subjunctive Io ieo Tu ii Illo iea Noi ieamo Voi ieate Illi ieano, ieant POTERE Present Io posso Tu pote Illo pota Noi possamo Voi possete Illi possono, possunt Imperfect Io potevo Tu poteve Illo poteva Noi potevemo Voi potevete Illi poteveno, potevunt Future Io potero Tu poteri Illo potera Noi poteremo Voi poterete Illi potereno, poterunt Subjunctive Io possio Tu possie Illo possia Noi possiamo Voi possiate Illi possino, possint VULLERE Present Io vullo Tu ve Illo vua Noi vullomo Voi volte Illi vullono, vollunt Imperfect Io volevo Tu voleve Illo voleva Noi volevamo Voi volevate Illi volerano, volerant Future Io voluero Tu voluere Illo voluera Noi volueramo Voi voluerate Illi voluerano, voluerant Subjunctive Io vello Tu velle Illo vella Noi vellimo Voi vellite Illi vellino, vellint Past passive participles As stated in the above section, past participles depend on the verb, and its last letter. Bellow is a crude list of such changes. Videre>viso Frangere, tangere, pingere, stringere> fratto, tatto, pitto, stritto Scrivere>pp scritto Videre>viso Morire>morto Cernere>cretto, future basic crev- Mittere>misso Iacere>iatto Lavare>lautto Secare>setto Cedere>ceso Nascere>natto Patire>passo Iuvare>iutto Gerere>gesto Fallere>falso Secare>setto Dicere>ditto Claudere>clauso Ponere>posto Flere>fletto Vertere>verso Reggere>retto Teggere>tetto Lincuere>litto Vincuere>vitto Iungere>iunto Sentire>senso Pingere>pitto Movere>motto Tendere>tento/tenso Solvere>soluto Surgere>suretto (Latin, subrectere>surgere?) Plodere>ploso Fluere>flusso Suadere>suaso Ire>ito Mentire>menso Ardere>arso Luere>luto Pangere>patto Tingere>tinto Ciere>cito Vullere>voluo -egg>-ett -c>-tt -v>-tt -d>-s -ng>-tt "Tenere" and "venire" become "tiendr-" and "viendr-" respectively in the subjunctive. Common "-ere" verbs Ciere=put in motion, move, stir, shake, summon, call, appeal, awaken, rouse, stimulate, excite, disturb, produce, cause, begin, provoke (see excite) Diluere=wash away, dilute, purge, dissolve, dissipate Eicuere=to equal, object=subject Lincuere=leave, quit forsake, depart from Alluere=lap, bathe, flow near or past Allicuere=melt Delincuere=transgress, fail in duty, offend, trespass, sin Futuere=f*** Licuere=flow, be liquid Tribuere=grant, bestow, give up, yield, concede, allow, submit Struere=gather, compose, pick up, amass Suere=sow, stich; join, fasten together; devise Spuere=spit, spew Tuere=behold, look or gaze at, watch, view; care for, guard, defend, protect, support; uphold, keep up, maintain, preserve Metuere=fear, be afraid of/to Battuere=beat (up), hit, pound, fight Eruere=cast out, throw away; dig, tear, or pluck out Fluere=flow Sorbere=suck in, drink up Glubere=peel, cleave Tabere=melt, dwindle, rot, waste away Nubere=marry, wed Rubere=be red Iacere=throw Cressere, crescere=increase, appear, grow, become Tacere=be quiet Peiscere=feed, nourish, maintain, support, cultivate Santafacere=make sacred/holy/healthy/right, worship, sanctify Placere=please Noscere=know, recognize, be acquainted with, experience Parcere=be lenient with, spare, forbear Licere=be permitted, be allowed Licere=be for sale, have a price, cost, be worth Nascere=to be born, to start, to be generated, arise Ducere=lead, guide, command Mulcere=stroke, caress, make sweet or pleasant Poscere=beg, request, demand, desire; call someone; demand (as in hand in marriage) Tracere=drag, tug, pull Glacere=freeze -escere=become Dicere=talk, speak Rubescere=become red, redden Videre=watch, see, look Edere=eat Rodere=gnaw, nibble, bite; erode, corrode, eat away Mordere=bite, nip, sting, eat, take hold of, hurt; rob, steal Findere=split, cleave, separate, divide, break off (related to fissure, bite) Frendere=gnash, crush, bruise, grind Claudere=close, shut, imprison, restrict, limit Studere=study Fidere=trust, rely upon, put confidence in Audere=dare, venture, risk Cadere=fall, die, cease, happen Sedere=be sitting down Gradere=walk Vendere=sell Gaudere=rejoice, take pleasure in Sidere=settle, agree, decide Pendere=to hang, suspend, think, consider Prendere=take, grab Ludere=amuse, frolic Ridere=laugh Credere=believe Caedere=cut, hew, fell, strike, beat, kill Trudere=thrust, push, shove Attendere=attend to, pay attention to, heed Tendere=stretch, reach, proceed, strive for, reach for Ocidere=fall down, set, die Scandere=climb, ascend, mount Plodere=clap, strike, burst, pop Suadere=recommend, advise; advocate, promote, support; urge, exhort, persuade Persuadere=persuade Ardere=burn Cedere=happen/occur Grafere=carve, scratch, write, draw Tingere=wet, moisten, impregnate, dye, tinge Veggere=excite, move, quicken; be active or lively (see wagon) Leggere=collect, gather, pick up; count, choose, select, appoint; tell, read, recite Intrascire, intraleggere=understand Tangere=touch, grasp, reach, arrive at, attain to, move, affect Frangere=break, shatter, press, crush Auggere=increase, enlarge, exaggerate; honor, exalt, praise Luggere=mourn, grieve, lament Pingere=paint Fulgere=glitter, gleam, glare, glisten Stringere=press, be tight, be closed Astringere= Draw close, bind or tie together; tighten, contract; check, repress, restrain, squeeze Plangere=bewail, lament, mourn Iogare, iungere=join, connect, bind; understand Agere=do, act, make, manage, conduct Navagere=navigate Spargere=scatter, sprinkle, strew Fingere=mold, train, teach, fashion, form, instruct Tergere=rub, wipe, clean; polish, burnish Reggere=to rule, guide, direct, govern Teggere=cover, shield, protect, defend, hide, bury Surgere=get up, wake up, rise, arise Pangere=fasten, fix, set; drive in, sink in; settle, conclude, fix, pledge, pact Docere=teach, show, instruct Fallere=deceive, trick, lie, cheat, disappoint, perjure; escape the notice of, be unseen Alere=nourish, feed, maintain, develop Fellere=suck Tollere=raise, lift up, elevate; remove, take away; destroy, abolish; erase Dolere=suffer, grieve, lament, ache, feel pain Valere=be strong/healthy, be worth; to be able/have capacity to Flere=weep, cry; lament, grieve for (1st person singular=fleo) Olere=give off a smell, omit an odor Plere (pleo=1PS)=fill Emere=buy, purchase, acquire Vomere, vemere=spew, vomit, rush forth Tumere=swell, bulge Sumere=assume, suppose, take up, seize, undertake Premere=press, pursue, nag, annoy, follow, be a nuisance, hunt Tremere=be afraid of, tremble/shake/shudder at Intratenere=share Sinere=let, permit, suffer, set, put down, lay down Cernere=discern, differentiate, sift, distinguish (see discern) Pertenere=continue, sustain Manere=stay, remain; wait for, expect; last, endure Tenere=hold, have, rent, keep, sustain Cappere=capture, buy, take Appere=fasten, connect, attach, bind Coepere=begin (coepio in Latin) Serpere=crawl, creep Repere=crawl, creep Scalpere=scratch, carve, engrave Carpere=pluck, pick, harvest; tear off, seize, steal; select, pick Cuerere=seek, demand, question, wonder Serere=sow, plant, establish, found, produce; close, connect, bind, compose, interweave, entwine, braid Currere=to run Terrere=frighten, alarm, scare, terrify Arere=to be dry, parched, withered Merere=deserve, merit Virere=be verdant, green; flourish, be lively Censere=give opinion, think, recommend, judge, suppose, decree, vote, determine, count, reckon, assess Pulverisere=pulverise -ismo, -isere=school of thought/gerund, causative suffix Attivisere=activate Rettivisere=elect, designate as leader, instruct, train, or prepare (e.g. teachers, soldiers) Nattivisere=make accustomed Sensivisere=sensitise Trattisere=lengthen, stretch Valettisere=promote, extol, strengthen, give ability or allowance Vulgisere=publish Pottare=drink (esp. liquor) Sistere=place, set, stand, appear Nettere=bind, tie, fasten, relate, connect; learn Mittere=send, release, discharge, dismiss Putere=stink, be rotten, be valueless Petere=ask for, beg for, pray Nitere=shine, glitter, be radiant Plettere=weave, braid, pleat; twist, bend, turn Pettere=seek, aim at, desire; hunt, pursue Cuatere=shake, agitate; vex, harass; excite, affect Vertere=turn, revolve; exchange, translate Utere=use Certere=argue, dispute, contend, settle (esp. by combat) Bivere=drink Devere=owe, ought, should, must (regular) Favere=notice, pay attention to (pp fauto) Solvere=loosen, undo, free up, solve Pavere=to be afraid, struck with fear, be scared of Livere=be bluish, livid Vivere=live, be alive; reside in Common "-ire" verbs Avrire=open Adire=approach, go to, attend, undertake, undergo Servire=serve, be slave to, be subject to, be devoted to Condire=season, spice, make savory, embalm, cultivate, temper Bullire=bubble, boil Morire=die Venire=come Partire=share, apportion, divide, distribute Devenire=become Patire=suffer, endure, acquiesce, submit, allow, endure Munire=protect, enclose, fortify, defend Scire=to know Odire=hate Secuire=follow, come after Aurire=drain, drink up, absorb, swallow; devour, consume, exhaust, deplete, use up, engulf; tear up, pluck out, draw out, dig up, hollow out; derive, borrow, take Fodire=dig, dig out, mine, quarry, clear the earth, bury Cuire=be able (rare) Sapire=know (information, skill) Vestire=clothe, dress, attire, deck Subire=submit to, undergo Orire=rise up, spring, appear, originate from Tranire=go over/across, pass Metire=measure, estimate; mete out, ration Mensire=equal (in number/measurement) Crocire=croak, caw loudly Audire=hear Sentire=feel, perceive, sense Common "-are" verbs Plorare=cry, be sad, rain Flare=blow, flare Iuvare=help Vacare=to lack, be empty, be free, at leisure/bored, hungry Avacare=to empty Cellare=hide (see conceal) Secare=cut, divide, amputate Pugnare=punch, fistfight, brawl Lassare=expand, make lax, open, release Vorare=eat, consume, glutton, binge Laudare=laud, praise, extol Lettare=kill, slay Nuntiare=count; narrate, report, recount, announce (Latin “nuntiare”) Narrare=narrate, recount, recite, speak Fablare, faulare=talk, converse, discuss, talk about Stare=stand, exist, be (location, height) Firmare=make firm, strengthen, harden Arare=plough, till, cultivate land, farm Veinare=hunt, pursue, chase; strive Sperare=hope Tropare=find, presume Trovare=find Opare=work Vocare=call, pronounce, voice Ornare=furnish, equip, adorn, decorate, prepare, ornament Ceicare=blind, obscure, deprive of light or sight Lavare=wash Vigilare=watch, remain awake, be vigil, last through, survive Vagare=amble, wander, stroll; waver, be unsettled Palare=wander about, stray, be dispersed Lacerare=rend, mutilate, mangle, wreck Mandare=consign, hand over, entrust, confide Stipare=crowd, press together, compress; cram, stuff, fill; squeeze Cremare=destroy by fire, burn, cremate Cantare=sing Fumare=to be smoking/smoldering Caccare=defecate Bappisare=baptize Dare=give (short form of "donnere") Precare=beseech, wish, beg, pray Plorare=wail, complain, lament, cry out Nutare=allow, nod Lentare=bend under strain, flex Forare=bore, pierce Nattare=swim Vettare=bear, carry Mercare=trade, deal, sell Laetare=rejoice, cause to rejoice Cenare=dine Serare=close, fasten Mirare=be astonished/amazed at, marvel/wonder at, admire, watch, look at, face (a direction/person) Lucrare=profit, gain, benefit, earn, win Cassare=cancel, annul; break, reverse, overturn; make useless or empty Cuassare=weaken, shake, quake Oppare=choose, select; wish for, desire; elect (desire/wish=conditional/subjunctive form) Rogare=ask, enquire, request Ligare=tie, bind; bandage, wrap around Iocare=play Mandiare=eat Latrare=bark, roar, rant Spirare=breathe, draw breath Iare=yawn, gape; be open, pause Odorare=smell (actively, not as a copula) Bellare=war Mattare=reward, honour; punish, trouble Fugare=chase away, exile, dismiss Cailare=carve, engrave, emboss; embroider Cubare=lie down, recline, be asleep; be bedridden Fricare=rub, chafe Formare=make, form, shape, fashion Mutare=change Usare=use Dubitare=doubt Pensare=ponder, consider; weigh; think Flammare=burn, set on fire, go red, blush Undare=surge, flow, abound Metare=measure, mete, mark out Cruentare=stain with blood, dye red, make bloody Salvare=save Maculare=stain, defile, pollute, dishonor Cuinare=pollute, defile, stain, befoul; corrupt, contaminate Micare=vibrate, quiver, beat, glitter, twinkle, tremble Vetare=forbid, oppose, veto Rutilare=redden Violare=treat with violence, abuse, maltreat; violate, defile, profane Parare=prepare, arrange, provide, furnish Tentare=try Coccare=cook Adpositions Prepositions that decline to what they modify: Supra=on, above Ultra=above, beyond, over Infra=underneath, on the bottom of Sutta=below, underneath, beneath Intra=among Contra=against Vulta=on the subject of Secuenta=after Erga=because of, about, on account of Versa=toward (when previous vowel is "a", so "a" can't be used) Lincuenta=away from Cerca=near, around, with, about Prepositions that do not decline: Ante=before Por=for Per=through Par=by A(d)=at, to, toward En=in, inside Sem=as, like Cum=with Example text The Babel Text Lu torre da Babella Ie lu mondo totto avebba una lingua e on dico vulgo. E dunc’illi se erente cietti a l’esta, illi trovebeno on plano en Tinara, e evi se certeveno. E illi se diceveno, “Venite, fattamo di brici e li coccamo plene.” Uteveno lu brico em pono du sasso, e la picce sen gleitto. Pui illi se diceveno, “Venisso, strucamo por li stessi un ciutta, cum on torre ci se tratat a ceilo, por ce noi cresciamo on nomo por li stessi e no poi siamo spargi per totta supra terra. Mai lu Dio vennivat a fondo por videre la ciutta e lu torre ce li omi struceveno. Lu Dio diceva, “Si, sem on greggo vocento la stessa lingua, ili aveno coepetto cuisto fattere, nolla ie c’illi se sidiamo fattere sera no cedila por ili. Venite, allamo a fondo e malfundamo ilora lingua por c’illi no se intralegiono.” Poi lu Dio li spargeva du evi per totta supra terra, e illi arrestavano struccere la ciutta. Lu cuisto es porcuei ella fu vocatta Babella—parcosce evi lu Dio malfundeva la lingua du mundo totto. E di evi lu Dio li spargeva supra la pella du mundo totto. Patrono e lu Draco— Grandfather and the Dragon Dun ce mo alto-alto-patrono fu omo iuveno, illo vagava lu mundo. Iva prime a favonio; ivi stava sola l’arena. Iva secuente a seppentrio; ivi stava sola la nivea. Iva secuente a la oriente; ivi le monte stavano ultre ardue e alto-alto-patrono no poteva le scandere. Tande sideva vagare a l’austra, par ecuo, par plaustro, e par barca. A l’austro videva la grandissima ciutta du totto du mundo. LU VENTO SEPPENTRIO E LA SOLE certeveno supre cui fossa lu potentissimo, e sideveno ce lu cui fossa vocatto vincoro fossa lu cui potea primamente devestire on omo vaganto de veste. Lu Vento Seppentrio tentava primamente doccere ce valea e flava da forte totta, aute dun ce flava fortiure, lu Vaganto ligava le veste plu stringamente, usce tande, teggento totto sperantia da vincere, lu Vento vocava la Sole por videre lu cui potavea facere. La Sole niteva plodamente da caldite totta. Lu Vaganto, per sentire li radi mulcenti, deprendeva la catta de veste, un secuenta un alia, e tande, magno retto par la caldite, devestiva e alluetta par un fluentina cue cubava en sa passira. Lu persuasio esta maiora cuanta la stippantia. Other I was wondering about adverbs, because I don't understand how it's OK for adjectives to match nouns, but not for adverbs to match adjectives (just obviously not verbs, which don't carry gender in Faulona), which I've heard from various places. Currently I simply have a suffix "-e" off the root for an adverb, maybe I could add an "-i" suffix variant for masculine adverbs? Another thing I have is "-itre", from Latin "iter", but I find it kind of clunky and find it kind of close to the abstract nominalizer, "-ite". One old thing I did was I used "cum _ite", so "he runs beautifully" would be glossed as "he runs with beauty", written "Il curra cum belite". Below, you'll see that I've decided what to do with adverbs, but I'm still not fully sure—should verbs carry on gender, despite not marking it? My first instinct is to say no, since I don't want everything in the sentence ending in the same letter. Neuter gender is another issue. I currently have it so ambiguous things are masculine in the singular, and feminine in the plural (which I came up with myself before realizing it's also in Romanian), any thoughts on if this sounds good? I don't want this to be a typical "male-priority" Romance language. Also, what about a handful of neuter nouns, that also follow this? The only out-of-the-ordinary one I have so far is "genu", meaning "gender", which would be "gene" in the plural. What about words like "nolla", meaning "nothing", or "totto", meaning "all", having gender, as they currently do? They don't in French, who's grammar I mostly based my previous conlangs' grammars off of (such as Jamauwyeyh Yatan). Also, I have "no plu" meaning "no longer" or "no more", but I don't really know what kind of word that "more" or "longer" would be in the context, so I want to make some kind of phrase like "per no tempo pluro", meaning "through no more time". I also don't like the French (maybe this is in other Romance languages, too) tendency to add prepositions after a verb, so "j'essaie de me taire" would become "Tento se tacere". As a related side note, since English just uses the basic "to" infinitive for various things, for a while I didn't understand exactly why French used "pour + infinitive" for the supine until I got more into Latin while making this language and ran into the Latin supine. I'm worried there's some similar reason why the "de" is there in French sentence in the above paragraph, that I'm completely ignorant of, being Anglophone. There's also a small issue with conjugations for the irregular verbs (essere, avere, allere, venire, tenere), none of which I've posted yet while I finish making sure they're somewhat easy to memorize. For any past subjunctive or conditional, a compound form is needed using an auxiliary verb. I'm fine with compound verbs for perfatto/perfect and pluperfatto/pluperfect, but other Romance languages have a single word, say, for a past subjunctive of a given verb. I'm not sure if I should include this. I've had the idea of having passive conjugations, like in Latin, in which there would be the root, followed by the root of the passive participle, and then a normal conjugation for the verb type. For example, "it is said" would be written "(il) dicetta", and "you are loved" would be "(tu) amate". Participles would otherwise stay the same as they currently are. Any input on this would be appreciated. Credo ce avo sidetto ce le tangore aliale (adverbs, "affectors of other(s)") siono formatte utente "-mente" si lu verbo prevenento no mutattea per la gendra du facoro. Ditto aliamento, le tangore aliale no mutattano secuente li verbi facenti, aute mutattano secuente li mutori di verbi (adjectives), e secuente le alie tangore aliale cue attangeno li mutori di verbi. Translation: I think I've decided that adverbs are made with "-mente" if the previous word doesn't change according to the gender of the subject. In other words, adverbs don't change after verbs, but do change after adjectives, or after other adverbs (as long as those adverbs modify adjectives). Also, adverbs change to participles. "Li omi, essenti veramenti grandi, fureno veramente fablati sem essenti aute supri alti por gradere per un ianua." "The men, being truly large, were actually said to be also too tall to walk through doorways." This sentence matches the first adverb to the participle, but the second adverb affects the verb (not the participle, even if it appears this way), so the basic "-mente" form is used, as per older Latin customs. This language was created by http://conlang.wikia.com/wiki/User:Fauloro. Do not delete. Category:Languages Category:Romance conlangs